Statistics in real-time quantitative PCR



Statistics for Biologists
by www.Nature.com


There is no disputing the importance of statistical analysis in biological research, but too often it is considered only after an experiment is completed, when it may be too late.
This collection highlights important statistical issues that biologists should be aware of and provides practical advice to help them improve the rigor of their work.
Nature Methods' Points of Significance column on statistics explains many key statistical and experimental design concepts. Other resources include an online plotting tool and links to statistics guides from other publishers.

Since September 2013 Nature Methods has been publishing a monthly column on statistics aimed at providing reseachers in biology with a basic introduction to core statistical concepts and methods, including experimental design. Although targeted at biologists, the articles are useful guides for researchers in other disciplines as well. A continuously updated list of these articles is provided.


A survey of tools for the analysis of quantitative PCR (qPCR) data
Stephan Pabinger, Stefan Rödiger, Albert Kriegner, Klemens Vierlinger, Andreas Weinhäusel
Biomolecular Detection and Quantification 1 (2014) 23–33

Real-time quantitative polymerase-chain-reaction (qPCR) is a standard technique in most laboratories used for various applications in basic research. Analysis of qPCR data is a crucial part of the entire experiment, which has led to the development of a plethora of methods. The released tools either cover specific parts of the workflow or provide complete analysis solutions. Here, we surveyed 27 open-access software packages and tools for the analysis of qPCR data. The survey includes 8 Microsoft Windows, 5 web-based, 9 R-based and 5 tools from other platforms. Reviewed packages and tools support the analysis of different qPCR applications, such as RNA quantification, DNA methylation, genotyping, identification of copy number variations, and digital PCR. We report an overview of the functionality, features and specific requirements of the individual software tools, such as data exchange formats, availability of a graphical user interface, included procedures for graphical data presentation, and offered statistical methods. In addition, we provide an overview about quantification strategies, and report various applications of qPCR. Our comprehensive survey showed that most tools use their own file format and only a fraction of the currently existing tools support the standardized data exchange format RDML. To allow a more streamlined and comparable analysis of qPCR data, more vendors and tools need to adapt the standardized format to encourage the exchange of data between instrument software, analysis tools, and researchers.


Statistical diagnostics emerging from external quality control of real-time PCR
Marubini E, Verderio P, Raggi CC, Pazzagli M, Orlando C; Italian Network for
Quality Assessment of Tumor Biomakers; Italian Society of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Molecular Biology.
Institute of Medical Statistics and Biometry, Universita degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy.

Orginal Paper: Int J Biol Markers. 2004 19(2): 141-146
Erratum: Int J Biol Markers. 2004 19(3): 256

Besides the application of conventional qualitative PCR as a valuable tool to enrich or identify specific sequences of nucleic acids, a new revolutionary technique for quantitative PCR determination has been introduced recently. It is based on real-time detection of PCR products revealed as a homogeneous accumulating signal generated by specific dyes. However, as far as we know, the influence of the variability of this technique on the reliability of the quantitative assay has not been thoroughly investigated. A national program of external quality assurance (EQA) for real-time PCR determination involving 42 Italian laboratories has been developed to assess the analytical performance of real-time PCR procedures. Participants were asked to perform a conventional experiment based on the use of an external reference curve (standard curve) for real-time detection of three cDNA samples with different concentrations of a specific target. In this paper the main analytical features of the standard curve have been investigated in an attempt to produce statistical diagnostics emerging from external quality control. Specific control charts were drawn to help biochemists take technical decisions aimed at improving the performance of their laboratories. Overall, our results indicated a subset of seven laboratories whose performance appeared to be markedly outside the limits for at least one of the standard curve features investigated. Our findings suggest the usefulness of the approach presented here for monitoring the heterogeneity of results produced by different laboratories and for selecting those laboratories that need technical advice on their performance.

Methods of integrating data to uncover genotype-phenotype interactions
Ritchie MD, Holzinger ER, Li R, Pendergrass SA, Kim D
Nat Rev Genet. 2015 16(2): 85-97

Recent technological advances have expanded the breadth of available omic data, from whole-genome sequencing data, to extensive transcriptomic, methylomic and metabolomic data. A key goal of analyses of these data is the identification of effective models that predict phenotypic traits and outcomes, elucidating important biomarkers and generating important insights into the genetic underpinnings of the heritability of complex traits. There is still a need for powerful and advanced analysis strategies to fully harness the utility of these comprehensive high-throughput data, identifying true associations and reducing the number of false associations. In this Review, we explore the emerging approaches for data integration - including meta-dimensional and multi-staged analyses - which aim to deepen our understanding of the role of genetics and genomics in complex outcomes. With the use and further development of these approaches, an improved understanding of the relationship between genomic variation and human phenotypes may be revealed.



Statistical Significance of quantitative PCR
Yann Karlen , Alan McNair , Sebastien Perseguers , Christian Mazza & Nicolas Mermod
BMC Bioinformatics 2007, 8: 131

Background - PCR has the potential to detect and precisely quantify specific DNA sequences, but it is not yet often used as a fully quantitative method. A number of data collection and processing strategies have been described for the implementation of quantitative PCR. However, they can be experimentally cumbersome, their relative performances have not been evaluated systematically, and they often remain poorly validated statistically and/or experimentally. In this study, we evaluated the performance of known methods, and compared them with newly developed data processing strategies in terms of sensitivity, precision and robustness.
Results - Our results indicate that simple methods that do not rely on the estimation of the efficiency of the PCR amplification may provide reproducible and sensitive data, but that they do not quantify DNA with precision. Other evaluated methods based on sigmoidal or exponential curve fitting were generally of both poor sensitivity and precision. A statistical analysis of the parameters that influence efficiency indicated that it depends mostly on the selected amplicon and to a lesser extent on the particular biological sample analyzed. Thus, we devised various strategies based on individual or averaged efficiency values, which were used to assess the regulated expression of several genes in response to a growth factor.
Conclusions - Overall, qPCR data analysis methods differ significantly in their performance, and this analysis identifies methods that provide DNA quantification estimates of high precision, robustness and reliability. These methods allow reliable estimations of relative expression ratio of two-fold or higher, and our analysis provides an estimation of the number of biological samples that have to be analyzed to achieve a given precision.

STATISTICS AND GENE EXPRESSION ANALYSIS
by Terry Seed
Why do we measure gene expression? The most common experiment is comparative: we want to compare the mRNA levels of one or more genes in cells from different sources. Comparisons of interest include tumour vs normal cells, cells from a specific organ in a mutant or genetically modified organism vs cells from the same organ in a normal organism of the same strain, and cells before and after an intervention such as a drug treatment. Another important class is the time-course experiments, where cells are sampled at different times, e.g. after the administration of a drug, or as the cell cycle or development proceeds, and interest is in temporal patterns of gene expression. Yet other experiments focus on spatial patterns of gene expression. There are many other kinds of gene expression experiments, essentially as many as there are organisms, cell types and conditions of biological interest.
How do we measure gene expression? As stated above, there are many techniques for doing so, but most rely on DNA-RNA or DNA-DNA hybridization. This is the process through which single-stranded DNA or RNA molecules and and base-pair with their complementary sequences amidst a complex mixture of many molecules of the same kind. The terminology we adopt names the sequence representing a gene of interest the probe, while the pool within which a complemen-tary copy of the probe is sought is named the target DNA or RNA. Other terminologies are the reverse of ours.
On what scale do we measure gene expression? Much of the recent interest by statisticians in this area stems from the availability of data sets giving expression measurements on tens of thousands of genes,so-called microarray gene expression data. However, nylon membrane filters with thousands of genes spotted on them have been around for over a decade, and smaller-scale quantitative expression data for much longer. We begin with a discussion of the first and simplest method of quantifying RNA, as many of the features of the high-throughput methods are already present here.

Real-time quantitative RT-PCR: design, calculations, and statistics
Rieu I, Powers SJ.
Plant Cell. 2009 21(4): 1023
Two recent letters to the editor of The Plant Cell (Gutierrez et al., 2008; Udvardi et al., 2008) highlighted the importance of following correct experimental protocol in quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR). In these letters, the authors outlined measures to allow precise estimation of gene expression by ensuring the quality of material, refining laboratory practice, and using a normalization of relative quantities of transcripts of genes of interest (GOI; also called target genes) where multiple reference genes have been analyzed appropriately. In this letter, we build on the issues raised by considering the statistical design of qRT-PCR experiments, the calculation of normalized gene expression, and the statistical analysis of the subsequent data. This letter comprises advice for taking account of, in particular, the first and the last of these three vital issues. We concentrate on the situation of comparing transcript levels in different sample types (treatments) using relative quantification, but many of the concerns, particularly those with respect to design, are equally applicable to absolute quantification.

Statistical Selection of Maintenance Genes for Normalization of Gene Expressions
Yifan Huang Jason C. Hsu† Mario Peruggia‡ Abigail A. Scott
Statistical Applications in Genetics and Molecular Biology Volume 5, Issue 1 2006 Article 4

Maintenance genes can be used for normalization in the comparison of gene expressions. Even though the absolute expression levels of maintenance genes may vary considerably among different tissues or cells, a set of maintenance genes may provide suitable normalization if their expression levels are relatively constant in the specific tissues or cells of interest. A statistical procedure is proposed to select maintenance genes for normalization of gene expression data from tissues or cells of interest. This procedure is based on simultaneous confidence intervals for practical equivalence of relative gene expressions in these tissues or cells. As an illustration, the procedure is applied to the maintenance gene expression data from Vandesompele et al. (2002).

The qPCR Data Statistical Analysis - Integromics White Paper
   Ramon Goni, Patricia García and Sylvain Foissac
   Integromics SL, Madrid Science Park, Santiago Grisolía, 28760 Tres Cantos, Spain

Abstract: Data analysis represents one of the biggest bottlenecks in qPCR experiments and the statistical aspects of the analysis are sometimes considered confusing for the non-expert. In this document we present some of the usual methods used in qPCR data analysis and a practical example using Integromics®' RealTime StatMiner®, the unique software analysis package specialized for qPCR experiments which is compatible with all Applied Biosystems Instruments. RealTime StatMiner® uses a simple, step-by-step analysis workflow guide that includes parametric, non-parametric and paired tests for relative quantification of gene expression, as well as 2-way ANOVA for two-factor differential expression analysis     Link to Integromics web page



Statistical Inference for Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction Using a Hidden Markov Model: A Bayesian Approach
Nadia Lalam, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden
Statistical Applications in Genetics and Molecular Biology: Vol. 6  : Iss. 1, Article 10.

Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (Q-PCR) aims at determining the initial quantity of specific nucleic acids from the observation of the number of amplified DNA molecules. The most widely used technology to monitor the number of DNA molecules as they replicate is based on fluorescence chemistry. Considering this measurement technique, the observation of DNA amplification by PCR contains intrinsically two kinds of variability. On the one hand, the number of replicated DNA molecules is random, and on the other hand, the measurement of the fluorescence emitted by the DNA molecules is collected with some random error. Relying on a stochastic model of these two types of variability, we aim at providing estimators of the parameters arising in the proposed model, and, more specifically, of the initial amount of molecules. The theory of branching processes is classically used to model the evolution of the number of DNA molecules at each replication cycle. The model is a binary splitting Galton-Watson branching process. Its unknown parameters are the initial number of DNA molecules and the reaction efficiency of PCR, which is defined as the probability of replication of a DNA molecule. The number of DNA molecules is indirectly observed through noisy fluorescence measurements resulting in a so-called Hidden Markov Model. We aim at inference of the parameters of the underlying branching process, and the parameters of the noise from the fluorescence measurements in a Bayesian framework. Using simulations and experimental data, we investigate the performance of the Bayesian estimators obtained by Markov Chain Monte Carlo methods.

Common practice in molecular biology may introduce statistical bias and misleading biological interpretation.
Hocquette JF, Brandstetter AM.
J Nutr Biochem. 2002 Jun;13(6):370-377.
Unite de Recherches sur les Herbivores, Equipe Croissance et Metabolismes du
Muscle, Theix, 63122, Saint-Genes-Champanelle, France


In studies on enzyme activity or gene expression at the protein level, data are usually analyzed by using a standard curve after subtracting blank values. In most cases and for most techniques (spectrophotometric assays, ELISA), this approach satisfies the basic principles of linearity and specificity. In our experience, this might be also the case for Western-blot analysis. By contrast, mRNA data are usually presented as arbitrary units of the ratio of a target RNA over levels of a control RNA species. We here demonstrate by simple experiments and various examples that this data-normalization procedure may result in misleading conclusions. Common molecular biology techniques have never been carefully tested according to the basic principles of validation of quantitative techniques. We thus prefer a regression-based approach for quantifying mRNA levels relatively to a control RNA species by Northern-blot, semi-quantitative RT-PCR or similar techniques. This type of techniques is also characterized by a lower reproducibility for repeated assays when compared to biochemical analyses. Therefore, we also recommend to design experiments, which allow the detection of a similar range of variance by biochemical and molecular biology techniques. Otherwise, spurious conclusions may be provided regarding the control level of gene expression.

Confidence interval estimation for DNA and mRNA concentration by real-time PCR:  A new environment for an old theorem
Verderio P, Orlando C, Casini Raggi C, Marubini E.
Int J Biol Markers. 2004 19(1):76-9.
Operative Unit of Medical Statistics and Biometry, Istituto Nazionale per lo Studio e la Cura dei Tumori, Milan, Italy.

Real-Time PCR (RT-PCR) is becoming the method of choice for quantification of minute amounts of nucleic acids. Different applications of real-time approaches have been widely reviewed (1-5). Real-time PCR typically employs fluorescent probes which generate a signal that accumulates during PCR cycling in a manner proportional to the concentration of amplification products. By this principle the measurement of fluorescence in each sample provides an homogeneous signal which is specifically associated with the amplified target and quantitatively related to the amount of PCR products (1). Fluorescent monitoring of DNA/cDNA amplification is the basis of real-time PCR: the target DNA/mRNA concentration can be determined from the fractional cycle where a threshold amount of amplified DNA/cDNA is produced. The latter is defined as threshold cycle (ct ) and corresponds to the number of amplification cycles required to generate enough fluorescent signal to reach the threshold (1). These ct values are directly proportional to the amount of starting template and are the basis for quantification of target DNA/mRNA concentration. Specifically, absolute quantification of DNA/mRNA target
can be achieved using the so-called standard curve, which is constructed by amplifying known amounts of DNA/cDNA. To generate the standard curve, a set of 10-fold dilutions of a positive control template is used as standard. For each dilution, replicated determinations of ct are performed and a straight line is fitted to the data by plotting the ct averages as function of the logarithm of their known starting concentration. Finally, by applying a technique known as “inverse regression”, the straight line is used as a “calibrator” to estimate the unknown starting DNA/cDNA concentration. As in any titration, the biologist needs to know the confidence interval of the “true” value of the unknown starting concentration. Surprisingly, as far as the authors of this note know, the confidence intervel is not usually provided in the papers dealingwith real-time PCR determinations of DNA/mRNA. This could perhaps be attributed to the fact that no straightforward method for the computation of such interval is available. In this note a suitable statistical tool, based on the Fieller’s theorem (6), is suggested to address this issue by resorting to the calculation of the roots of a seconddegree equation to attain the limits of the above mentioned confidence interval. The methodological background of the indirect titration approach is presented together with the introduction and justification of Fieller’s theorem and a detailed example of computation on real data is provided.

Bravais-Pearson and Spearman correlation coefficients: meaning, test of hypothesis and confidence interval
Artusi R, Verderio P, Marubini E.
Int J Biol Markers. 2002 Apr-Jun;17(2):148-51.
Operative Unit of Medical Statistics and Biometry, Istituto Nazionale per lo Studio e la Cura dei Tumori, Milan, Italy.


Biostatistics and tumor marker studies in breast cancer: design, analysis and interpretation issues
Biganzoli E, Boracchi P, Marubini E.
Int J Biol Markers. 2003 Jan-Mar;18(1):40-8.
Operative Unit of Medical Statistics and Biometry, Istituto Nazionale per lo Studio e la Cura dei Tumori, Milan, Italy.


SAS programs for real-time RT-PCR having multiple independent samples
Cook P, Fu C, Hickey M, Han ES, Miller KS.
Biotechniques. 2004 Dec;37(6): 990-995.
University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK 74104, USA.

Relative real-time reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) has become an important tool for quantifying changes in messenger RNA (mRNA) populations following differential development or stimulation of tissues or cells. However, the best methods for conducting such experiments and analyzing the resultant data remain an issue of discussion. In this report we describe an appropriate experimental methodology and the computer programs necessary to generate a meaningful statistical analysis of the combined biological and experimental variability in such experiments. Specifically, logarithmic transformations of raw fluorescence data from the log-linear portion of real-time PCR growth curves for both target and reference genes are analyzed using a SAS/STAT Mixed Procedure program specifically designed to give a point estimate of the relative expression ratio of the target gene with associated 95% confidence interval. The program code is open-source and is printed in the text.

Real-time reverse transcription followed by polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is the most suitable method for the detection and quantification of mRNA. It offers high sensitivity, good reproducibility, and a wide quantification range. Today relative expression is increasingly used, where the expression of a target gene is standardised by a non regulated reference gene. Several mathematical algorithm have been developed to compute an expression ratio, based on real-time PCR efficiency and the crossing point deviation of an unknown sample versus a control. But all published equations and available models for the calculation of relative expression ratio allow only for the determination of a single transcription difference between one control and one sample. Therefore a new software tool was established, named REST © (Relative Expression Software Tool), which compares two groups, with up to 16 data points in sample and  16 in control group, for reference and up to four target genes. The mathematical model used is based on the PCR efficiencies and the mean crossing point deviation between sample and control group. Subsequently the expression ratio results of the four investigated transcripts are tested for significances by a randomisation test. Herein development and application of REST is explained and the usefulness of relative expression in real-time PCR using REST is discussed.

Kinetic Outlier Detection (KOD) in real-time PCR
Tzachi Bar, Anders Stahlberg, Anders Muszta and Mikael Kubista
NAR Vol 31(17)  e105
Department of Chemistry and Bioscience, Chalmers University of Technology, Medicinargatan 7B, 405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden,
Department of Mathematical Statistics, Eklandagatan 86, 412 96, Gothenburg, Sweden
TATAA Biocenter, Medicinargatan 7B, 405 30 Gothenburg, Sweden

Real-time PCR is becoming the method of choice for precise quantification of minute amounts of nucleic acids. For proper comparison of samples, almost all quantification methods assume similar PCR effciencies in the exponential phase of the reaction. However, inhibition of PCR is common when working with biological samples and may invalidate the assumed similarity of PCR effiencies. Here we present a statistical method, Kinetic Outlier Detection (KOD), to detect samples with dissimilar effiiencies. KOD is based on a comparison of PCR effciency, estimated from the amplifiation curve of a test sample, with the mean PCR effiency of samples in a training set. KOD is demonstrated and validated on samples with the same initial number of template molecules, where PCR is inhibited to various degrees by elevated concentrations of dNTP; and in detection of cDNA samples with an aberrant ratio of two genes. Translating the dissimilarity in efficiency to quantity, KOD identifies outliers that differ by 1.3±1.9-fold in their quantity from normal samples with a P-value of 0.05. This precision is higher than the minimal 2-fold difference in number of DNA molecules that real-time PCR usually aims to detect. Thus, KOD may be a useful tool for outlier detection in real-time PCR.

Intuitive Biostatistics
     http://www.graphpad.com/www/book/book.htm   

"The book's title suggests that he can make biostatistics intuitive for non-statisticians (e.g. physicians, clinicians and nurses). After reading through it he has made a believer out of me! He introduces concepts through examples and touches on most of the important statistical methods that are used in the medical literature. ... My usual concern with such books is that concepts are oversimplified and the presentation is too cook-bookish. Amazingly that is not the case here. Motulsky carefully explains concepts such as confidence intervals, p-values, multiple comparison issues, Bayesian thinking and Bayesian controversy in a way that should be understandable to his intended audience." by  Michael R. Chernick, PhD (review posted on amazon.com)
We created the GraphPad library to help biologists (and other scientists) learn about data analysis. This "library" contains articles and manuals written by GraphPad, as well as links to web sites and books written by others. http://www.graphpad.com/index.cfm?cmd=library.index

Applied Robust Statistics
David J. Olive,  Southern Illinois University,  Department of Mathematics,  Carbondale, IL 62901-4408
  Book Content ( 5 pages )
  Complete Book ( 532 pages  4.7 MB )